The Manchu leader Nurhachi established the Later Jin in 1616, organizing the scattered tribes of the north into eight banner units. In 1636, the Manchu ruler Abahai changed the name to Qing, literally “pure,” and prepared the way for the capture of Beijing in 1644. Under Manchu control, China was once more ruled by a foreign people. The Manchus were keen to adopt the Chinese method of rule, encouraging Chinese scholars into the service of the new empire. Dual administration at national and provincial levels meant Manchu and Chinese bureaucrats worked side by side using first Manchu and later Chinese as the official languages of government. However, despite the close interaction of Manchu and Chinese, the ruling Manchus were careful to maintain a distinct separation in order to protect their own privileges and cultural traditions.
The fist emperors of the Qing were enlightened rulers who presided over one of largest and most populous countries in the world. The territorial aspirations of Emperor Kangxi brought the regions of Central Asia and Southern Siberia once more under Chinese control. Kangxi was succeeded by Emperor Yongzheng. It was his fourth son, Emperor Qianlong, “Lasting Eminence,” (r. 1736-96) who heralded another golden age. An ambitious ruler, Qianlong was determined to extend China’s borders beyond those of the Tang, personally leading campaigns to Burma, Vietnam, and Central Asia.
During the 18th century, contact with the west increased through Jesuit missionaries and trade. By the mid-18th century, the Chinese sought to control trade by refusing all official contact with Westerners and opening only Canton to foreign merchants. Pressure from European embassies increased as the British sent Lord Macartney in 1792-94 to establish diplomatic relations and open China to trade. China refused to grant a single concession to the British.
