The Warring States Period was finally brought to an end as the Qin emerged victorious. In 221 BC, Qin Shi Huangdi pronounced himself the first emperor of China and ruled over a short yet decisive period of history. The Qin state was based on the political theories of Legalism, which established the role of the ruler as paramount and espoused a system of collective responsibility. Following unification, Qin Shi Huangdi conscripted thousands of workers to join together the defensive walls to the north, creating the Great Wall. He standardized the system of money, and weights and measures, and laid the foundations for a legal system. A ruthless ruler, Qin Shi Huangdi died in the belief that his famous terracotta army would protect him in the afterlife from his numerous enemies.

The founding of the Han dynasty (206 BC-AD 220) heralded a “golden age” in Chinese history. Emperor Gaodi (r. 206-195 BC) established the capital of the Western Han (206 BC-AD 9) at Chang’an (Xi’an), and retained much of the centralized administration established by the Qin. Subsequent emperors developed the civil service examination to select able men for state office. Han society was founded on the principles propounded by Confucius, and the Confucian classics formed the basis of the civil service examination. Daoism and yin-yang theory coexisted with ancestor worship and would form the basis of indigenous Chinese belief.

The Han empire expanded with regions of Central Asia, Vietnam, and Korea being brought under Chinese control. In 138 BC, General Zhang Qian was sent to establish diplomatic links with Central Asia and returned with tales of rich pastures and “heavenly horses.” The fine thoroughbreds of Ferghana (in modern Uzbekistan) were traded in exchange for Chinese silk, starting the flow of goods along the fabled Silk Road.

Han rule was briefly interrupted as Wang Mang seized power in AD 9, only to be restored by Guang Wudi (r. AD 25-57), who established the Eastern Han capital in Luoyang. Once more, the Han expanded Chinese territory. Paper was by now in use for much official documentation and the first Chinese dictionary was produced. Buddhism began its spread to China with the first Buddhist communities being established in Jiangsu province.